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 <H1><a name="Tcl">36 SWIG and Tcl</a></H1>
 <!-- INDEX -->
 <div class="sectiontoc">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn2">Preliminaries</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn3">Getting the right header files</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn4">Compiling a dynamic module</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn5">Static linking</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn6">Using your module</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn7">Compilation of C++ extensions</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn8">Compiling for 64-bit platforms</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn9">Setting a package prefix</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn10">Using namespaces</a>
 </ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn11">Building Tcl/Tk Extensions under Windows 95/NT</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn12">Running SWIG from Developer Studio</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn13">Using NMAKE</a>
 </ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn14">A tour of basic C/C++ wrapping</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn15">Modules</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn16">Functions</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn17">Global variables</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn18">Constants and enums</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn19">Pointers</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn20">Structures</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn21">C++ classes</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn22">C++ inheritance</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn23">Pointers, references, values, and arrays</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn24">C++ overloaded functions</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn25">C++ operators</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn26">C++ namespaces</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn27">C++ templates</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn28">C++ Smart Pointers</a>
 </ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn29">Further details on the Tcl class interface</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn30">Proxy classes</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn31">Memory management</a>
 </ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn32">Input and output parameters</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn33">Exception handling </a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn34">Typemaps</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn35">What is a typemap?</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn36">Tcl typemaps</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn37">Typemap variables</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn38">Converting  a Tcl list to a char ** </a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn39">Returning values in arguments</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn40">Useful functions</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn41">Standard  typemaps</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn42">Pointer handling</a>
 </ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn43">Turning a SWIG module into a Tcl Package.</a>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn44">Building new kinds of Tcl interfaces (in Tcl)</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn45">Proxy classes</a>
 </ul>
 <li><a href="#Tcl_nn46">Tcl/Tk Stubs</a>
 </ul>
 </div>
 <!-- INDEX -->


 <p>
 <b>Caution: This chapter is under repair!</b>
 </p>

 <p>
 This chapter discusses SWIG's support of Tcl. SWIG currently requires
 Tcl 8.0 or a later release.   Earlier releases of SWIG supported Tcl 7.x, but
 this is no longer supported.
 </p>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn2">36.1 Preliminaries</a></H2>


 <p>
 To build a Tcl module, run SWIG using the <tt>-tcl</tt> or <tt>-tcl8</tt> option :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 $ swig -tcl example.i
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 If building a C++ extension, add the <tt>-c++</tt> option:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 $ swig -c++ -tcl example.i
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 This creates a file <tt>example_wrap.c</tt> or
 <tt>example_wrap.cxx</tt> that contains all of the code needed to
 build a Tcl extension module.  To finish building the module, you
 need to compile this file and link it with the rest of your program.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn3">36.1.1 Getting the right header files</a></H3>


 <p>
 In order to compile the wrapper code, the compiler needs the <tt>tcl.h</tt> header file.
 This file is usually contained in the directory
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 /usr/local/include
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Be aware that some Tcl versions install this header file with a version number attached to it.  If
 this is the case, you should probably make a symbolic link so that <tt>tcl.h</tt> points to the correct
 header file.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn4">36.1.2 Compiling a dynamic module</a></H3>


 <p>
 The preferred approach to building an extension module is to compile it into
 a shared object file or DLL. Assuming you have code you need to link to in a file
 called <tt>example.c</tt>, you will need to compile your program
 using commands like this (shown for Linux):
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 $ swig -tcl example.i
 $ gcc -fPIC -c example.c
 $ gcc -fPIC -c example_wrap.c -I/usr/local/include
 $ gcc -shared example.o example_wrap.o -o example.so
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 The exact commands for doing this vary from platform to platform.
 SWIG tries to guess the right options when it is installed.  Therefore,
 you may want to start with one of the examples in the <tt>SWIG/Examples/tcl</tt>
 directory.   If that doesn't work, you will need to read the man-pages for
 your compiler and linker to get the right set of options.  You might also
 check the <a href="https://github.com/swig/swig/wiki">SWIG Wiki</a> for
 additional information.
 </p>

 <p>
 When linking the module, the name of the output file has to match the name
 of the module.  If the name of your SWIG module is "<tt>example</tt>", the
 name of the corresponding object file should be
 "<tt>example.so</tt>".
 The name of the module is specified using the <tt>%module</tt> directive or the
  <tt>-module</tt> command line option.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn5">36.1.3 Static linking</a></H3>


 <p>
 An alternative approach to dynamic linking is to rebuild the Tcl
 interpreter with your extension module added to it.  In the past,
 this approach was sometimes necessary due to limitations in dynamic loading
 support on certain machines.  However, the situation has improved greatly
 over the last few years and you should not consider this approach
 unless there is really no other option.
 </p>

 <p>
 The usual procedure for adding a new module to Tcl involves writing a
 special function <tt>Tcl_AppInit()</tt> and using it to initialize the interpreter and
 your module.  With SWIG, the <tt>tclsh.i</tt> and <tt>wish.i</tt> library files
 can be used to rebuild the <tt>tclsh</tt> and <tt>wish</tt> interpreters respectively.
 For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 %module example

 %inline %{
 extern int fact(int);
 extern int mod(int, int);
 extern double My_variable;
 %}

 %include "tclsh.i"       // Include code for rebuilding tclsh

 </pre></div>

 <p>
 The <tt>tclsh.i</tt> library file includes supporting code that
 contains everything needed to rebuild tclsh. To rebuild the interpreter,
 you simply do something like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 $ swig -tcl example.i
 $ gcc example.c example_wrap.c \
         -Xlinker -export-dynamic \
         -DHAVE_CONFIG_H -I/usr/local/include/ \
         -L/usr/local/lib -ltcl -lm -ldl \
         -o mytclsh

 </pre></div>

 <p>
 You will need to supply the same libraries that were used to build Tcl the first
 time.  This may include system libraries such as <tt>-lsocket</tt>, <tt>-lnsl</tt>,
 and <tt>-lpthread</tt>.  If this actually works, the new version of Tcl
 should be identical to the default version except that your extension module will be
 a built-in part of the interpreter.
 </p>

 <p>
 <b>Comment:</b> In practice, you should probably try to avoid static
 linking if possible. Some programmers may be inclined
 to use static linking in the interest of getting better performance.
 However, the performance gained by static linking tends to be rather
 minimal in most situations (and quite frankly not worth the extra
 hassle in the opinion of this author).
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn6">36.1.4 Using your module</a></H3>


 <p>
 To use your module, simply use the Tcl <tt>load</tt> command.  If
 all goes well, you will be able to this:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 $ tclsh
 % load ./example.so
 % fact 4
 24
 %
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 A common error received by first-time users is the following:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./example.so
 couldn't find procedure Example_Init
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 This error is almost always caused when the name of the shared object file doesn't
 match the name of the module supplied using the SWIG <tt>%module</tt> directive.
 Double-check the interface to make sure the module name and the shared object
 file match.  Another possible cause of this error is forgetting to link the SWIG-generated
 wrapper code with the rest of your application when creating the extension module.
 </p>

 <p>
 Another common error is something similar to the following:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./example.so
 couldn't load file "./example.so": ./example.so: undefined symbol: fact
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 This error usually indicates that you forgot to include some object
 files or libraries in the linking of the shared library file.  Make
 sure you compile both the SWIG wrapper file and your original program
 into a shared library file.  Make sure you pass all of the required libraries
 to the linker.
 </p>

 <p>
 Sometimes unresolved symbols occur because a wrapper has been created
 for a function that doesn't actually exist in a library.  This usually
 occurs when a header file includes a declaration for a function that
 was never actually implemented or it was removed from a library
 without updating the header file.  To fix this, you can either edit
 the SWIG input file to remove the offending declaration or you can use
 the <tt>%ignore</tt> directive to ignore the declaration.
 </p>

 <p>
 Finally, suppose that your extension module is linked with another library like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 $ gcc -shared example.o example_wrap.o -L/home/beazley/projects/lib -lfoo \
       -o example.so
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If the <tt>foo</tt> library is compiled as a shared library, you might get the following
 problem when you try to use your module:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./example.so
 couldn't load file "./example.so": libfoo.so: cannot open shared object file:
 No such file or directory
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 This error is generated because the dynamic linker can't locate the
 <tt>libfoo.so</tt> library.  When shared libraries are loaded, the
 system normally only checks a few standard locations such as
 <tt>/usr/lib</tt> and <tt>/usr/local/lib</tt>.   To fix this problem,
 there are several things you can do.  First, you can recompile your extension
 module with extra path information. For example, on Linux you can do this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 $ gcc -shared example.o example_wrap.o -L/home/beazley/projects/lib -lfoo \
       -Xlinker -rpath /home/beazley/projects/lib \
       -o example.so
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Alternatively, you can set the <tt>LD_LIBRARY_PATH</tt> environment variable to
 include the directory with your shared libraries.
 If setting <tt>LD_LIBRARY_PATH</tt>, be aware that setting this variable can introduce
 a noticeable performance impact on all other applications that you run.
 To set it only for Tcl, you might want to do this instead:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 $ env LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/home/beazley/projects/lib tclsh
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Finally, you can use a command such as <tt>ldconfig</tt> to add additional search paths
 to the default system configuration (this requires root access and you will need to read
 the man pages).
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn7">36.1.5 Compilation of C++ extensions</a></H3>


 <p>
 Compilation of C++ extensions has traditionally been a tricky problem.
 Since the Tcl interpreter is written in C, you need to take steps to
 make sure C++ is properly initialized and that modules are compiled
 correctly.
 </p>

 <p>
 On most machines, C++ extension modules should be linked using the C++
 compiler.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % swig -c++ -tcl example.i
 % g++ -fPIC -c example.cxx
 % g++ -fPIC -c example_wrap.cxx -I/usr/local/include
 % g++ -shared example.o example_wrap.o -o example.so
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 In addition to this, you may need to include additional library
 files to make it work.  For example, if you are using the Sun C++ compiler on
 Solaris, you often need to add an extra library <tt>-lCrun</tt> like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % swig -c++ -tcl example.i
 % CC -KPIC -c example.cxx
 % CC -KPIC -c example_wrap.cxx -I/usr/local/include
 % CC -G example.o example_wrap.o -L/opt/SUNWspro/lib -o example.so -lCrun
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Of course, the extra libraries to use are completely non-portable---you will
 probably need to do some experimentation.
 </p>

 <p>
 Sometimes people have suggested that it is necessary to relink the
 Tcl interpreter using the C++ compiler to make C++ extension modules work.
 In the experience of this author, this has never actually appeared to be
 necessary.   Relinking the interpreter with C++ really only includes the
 special run-time libraries described above---as long as you link your extension
 modules with these libraries, it should not be necessary to rebuild Tcl.
 </p>

 <p>
 If you aren't entirely sure about the linking of a C++ extension, you
 might look at an existing C++ program.  On many Unix machines, the
 <tt>ldd</tt> command will list library dependencies.  This should give
 you some clues about what you might have to include when you link your
 extension module. For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 $ ldd swig
         libstdc++-libc6.1-1.so.2 =&gt; /usr/lib/libstdc++-libc6.1-1.so.2 (0x40019000)
         libm.so.6 =&gt; /lib/libm.so.6 (0x4005b000)
         libc.so.6 =&gt; /lib/libc.so.6 (0x40077000)
         /lib/ld-linux.so.2 =&gt; /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x40000000)
 $
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 As a final complication, a major weakness of C++ is that it does not
 define any sort of standard for binary linking of libraries.  This
 means that C++ code compiled by different compilers will not link
 together properly as libraries nor is the memory layout of classes and
 data structures implemented in any kind of portable manner.  In a
 monolithic C++ program, this problem may be unnoticed.  However, in Tcl, it
 is possible for different extension modules to be compiled with
 different C++ compilers.  As long as these modules are self-contained,
 this probably won't matter.  However, if these modules start sharing data,
 you will need to take steps to avoid segmentation faults and other
 erratic program behavior.   If working with lots of software components, you
 might want to investigate using a more formal standard such as COM.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn8">36.1.6 Compiling for 64-bit platforms</a></H3>


 <p>
 On platforms that support 64-bit applications (Solaris, Irix, etc.),
 special care is required when building extension modules.  On these
 machines, 64-bit applications are compiled and linked using a different
 set of compiler/linker options.  In addition, it is not generally possible to mix
 32-bit and 64-bit code together in the same application.
 </p>

 <p>
 To utilize 64-bits, the Tcl executable will need to be recompiled
 as a 64-bit application.  In addition, all libraries, wrapper code,
 and every other part of your application will need to be compiled for
 64-bits.  If you plan to use other third-party extension modules, they
 will also have to be recompiled as 64-bit extensions.
 </p>

 <p>
 If you are wrapping commercial software for which you have no source
 code, you will be forced to use the same linking standard as used by
 that software.  This may prevent the use of 64-bit extensions.  It may
 also introduce problems on platforms that support more than one
 linking standard (e.g., -o32 and -n32 on Irix).
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn9">36.1.7 Setting a package prefix</a></H3>


 <p>
 To avoid namespace problems, you can instruct SWIG to append a package
 prefix to all of your functions and variables. This is done using the
 -prefix option as follows :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 swig -tcl -prefix Foo example.i
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 If you have a function "<tt>bar</tt>" in the SWIG file, the prefix
 option will append the prefix to the name when creating a command and
 call it "<tt>Foo_bar</tt>".
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn10">36.1.8 Using namespaces</a></H3>


 <p>
 Alternatively, you can have SWIG install your module into a Tcl
 namespace by specifying the <tt>-namespace</tt> option :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 swig -tcl -namespace example.i
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 By default, the name of the namespace will be the same as the module
 name, but you can override it using the <tt>-prefix</tt> option.
 </p>

 <p>
 When the <tt>-namespace</tt> option is used, objects in the module
 are always accessed with the namespace name such as <tt>Foo::bar</tt>.
 </p>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn11">36.2 Building Tcl/Tk Extensions under Windows 95/NT</a></H2>


 <p>
 Building a SWIG extension to Tcl/Tk under Windows 95/NT is roughly
 similar to the process used with Unix.  Normally, you will want to
 produce a DLL that can be loaded into tclsh or wish.  This section
 covers the process of using SWIG with Microsoft Visual C++.
 although the procedure may be similar with other compilers.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn12">36.2.1 Running SWIG from Developer Studio</a></H3>


 <p>
 If you are developing your application within Microsoft developer
 studio, SWIG can be invoked as a custom build option.  The process
 roughly follows these steps :
 </p>

 <ul>
 <li>Open up a new workspace and use the AppWizard to select a DLL project.

 <li>Add both the SWIG interface file (the .i file), any supporting C
 files, and the name of the wrapper file that will be created by SWIG
 (ie. <tt>example_wrap.c</tt>).  Note : If using C++, choose a
 different suffix for the wrapper file such as
 <tt>example_wrap.cxx</tt>. Don't worry if the wrapper file doesn't
 exist yet--Developer studio will keep a reference to it around.

 <li>Select the SWIG interface file and go to the settings menu.  Under
 settings, select the "Custom Build" option.

 <li>Enter "SWIG" in the description field.

 <li>Enter "<tt>swig -tcl -o $(ProjDir)\$(InputName)_wrap.c
 $(InputPath)</tt>" in the "Build command(s) field"

 <li>Enter "<tt>$(ProjDir)\$(InputName)_wrap.c</tt>" in the "Output files(s) field".

 <li>Next, select the settings for the entire project and go to
 "C++:Preprocessor". Add the include directories for your Tcl
 installation under "Additional include directories".

 <li>Finally, select the settings for the entire project and go to
 "Link Options".  Add the Tcl library file to your link libraries.  For
 example "<tt>tcl80.lib</tt>".  Also, set the name of the output file
 to match the name of your Tcl module (ie. example.dll).

 <li>Build your project.
 </ul>

 <p>
 Now, assuming all went well, SWIG will be automatically invoked when
 you build your project.  Any changes made to the interface file will
 result in SWIG being automatically invoked to produce a new version of
 the wrapper file.  To run your new Tcl extension, simply run
 <tt>tclsh</tt> or <tt>wish</tt> and use the <tt>load</tt> command.
 For example :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 MSDOS &gt; tclsh80
 % load example.dll
 % fact 4
 24
 %
 </pre></div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn13">36.2.2 Using NMAKE</a></H3>


 <p>
 Alternatively, SWIG extensions can be built by writing a Makefile for
 NMAKE.  To do this, make sure the environment variables for MSVC++ are
 available and the MSVC++ tools are in your path.  Now, just write a
 short Makefile like this :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 # Makefile for building various SWIG generated extensions

 SRCS          = example.c
 IFILE         = example
 INTERFACE     = $(IFILE).i
 WRAPFILE      = $(IFILE)_wrap.c

 # Location of the Visual C++ tools (32 bit assumed)

 TOOLS         = c:\msdev
 TARGET        = example.dll
 CC            = $(TOOLS)\bin\cl.exe
 LINK          = $(TOOLS)\bin\link.exe
 INCLUDE32     = -I$(TOOLS)\include
 MACHINE       = IX86

 # C Library needed to build a DLL

 DLLIBC        = msvcrt.lib oldnames.lib

 # Windows libraries that are apparently needed
 WINLIB        = kernel32.lib advapi32.lib user32.lib gdi32.lib comdlg32.lib
 winspool.lib

 # Libraries common to all DLLs
 LIBS          = $(DLLIBC) $(WINLIB)

 # Linker options
 LOPT      = -debug:full -debugtype:cv /NODEFAULTLIB /RELEASE /NOLOGO /
 MACHINE:$(MACHINE) -entry:_DllMainCRTStartup@12 -dll

 # C compiler flags

 CFLAGS    = /Z7 /Od /c /nologo
 TCL_INCLUDES  = -Id:\tcl8.0a2\generic -Id:\tcl8.0a2\win
 TCLLIB        = d:\tcl8.0a2\win\tcl80.lib

 tcl:
         ..\..\swig -tcl -o $(WRAPFILE) $(INTERFACE)
         $(CC) $(CFLAGS) $(TCL_INCLUDES) $(SRCS) $(WRAPFILE)
         set LIB=$(TOOLS)\lib
         $(LINK) $(LOPT) -out:example.dll $(LIBS) $(TCLLIB) example.obj example_wrap.obj

 </pre></div>

 <p>
 To build the extension, run NMAKE (you may need to run vcvars32
 first).  This is a pretty minimal Makefile, but hopefully its enough
 to get you started.  With a little practice, you'll be making lots of
 Tcl extensions.
 </p>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn14">36.3 A tour of basic C/C++ wrapping</a></H2>


 <p>
 By default, SWIG tries to build a very natural Tcl interface to your
 C/C++ code.  Functions are wrapped as functions, classes are wrapped
 in an interface that mimics the style of Tk widgets and [incr Tcl]
 classes.  This section briefly covers the essential aspects of this
 wrapping.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn15">36.3.1 Modules</a></H3>


 <p>
 The SWIG <tt>%module</tt> directive specifies the name of the Tcl
 module. If you specify `<tt>%module example</tt>', then everything is
 compiled into an extension module <tt>example.so</tt>. When choosing a
 module name, make sure you don't use the same name as a built-in
 Tcl command.
 </p>

 <p>
 One pitfall to watch out for is module names involving numbers.  If
 you specify a module name like <tt>%module md5</tt>, you'll find that the
 load command no longer seems to work:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./md5.so
 couldn't find procedure Md_Init
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 To fix this, supply an extra argument to <tt>load</tt> like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./md5.so md5
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn16">36.3.2 Functions</a></H3>


 <p>
 Global functions are wrapped as new Tcl built-in commands.  For example,
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 %module example
 int fact(int n);
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 creates a built-in function <tt>fact</tt> that works exactly
 like you think it does:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % load ./example.so
 % fact 4
 24
 % set x [fact 6]
 %
 </pre></div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn17">36.3.3 Global variables</a></H3>


 <p>
 C/C++ global variables are wrapped by Tcl global variables.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 // SWIG interface file with global variables
 %module example
 ...
 %inline %{
 extern double density;
 %}
 ...
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Now look at the Tcl interface:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % puts $density          # Output value of C global variable
 1.0
 % set density 0.95       # Change value
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 If you make an error in variable assignment, you will get an
 error message.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % set density "hello"
 can't set "density": Type error. expected a double.
 %
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 If a variable is declared as <tt>const</tt>, it is wrapped as a
 read-only variable.  Attempts to modify its value will result in an
 error.
 </p>

 <p>
 To make ordinary variables read-only, you can use the <tt>%immutable</tt> directive. For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %{
 extern char *path;
 %}
 %immutable;
 extern char *path;
 %mutable;
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 The <tt>%immutable</tt> directive stays in effect until it is explicitly disabled or cleared using
 <tt>%mutable</tt>.
 See the <a href="SWIG.html#SWIG_readonly_variables">Creating read-only variables</a> section for further details.
 </p>

 <p>
 If you just want to make a specific variable immutable, supply a declaration name.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %{
 extern char *path;
 %}
 %immutable path;
 ...
 extern char *path;      // Read-only (due to %immutable)
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn18">36.3.4 Constants and enums</a></H3>


 <p>
 C/C++ constants are installed as global Tcl variables containing the
 appropriate value.  To create a constant, use <tt>#define</tt>, <tt>enum</tt>, or the
 <tt>%constant</tt> directive.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 #define PI 3.14159
 #define VERSION "1.0"

 enum Beverage { ALE, LAGER, STOUT, PILSNER };

 %constant int FOO = 42;
 %constant const char *path = "/usr/local";
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 For enums, make sure that the definition of the enumeration actually appears in a header
 file or in the wrapper file somehow---if you just stick an enum in a SWIG interface without
 also telling the C compiler about it, the wrapper code won't compile.
 </p>

 <p>
 Note:  declarations declared as <tt>const</tt> are wrapped as read-only variables and
 will be accessed using the <tt>cvar</tt> object described in the previous section.  They
 are not wrapped as constants.   For further discussion about this, see the <a href="SWIG.html#SWIG">SWIG Basics</a> chapter.
 </p>

 <p>
 Constants are not guaranteed to remain constant in Tcl---the value
 of the constant could be accidentally reassigned.You will just have to be careful.
 </p>

 <p>
 A peculiarity of installing constants as variables is that it is necessary to use the Tcl <tt>global</tt> statement to
 access constants in procedure bodies.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 proc blah {} {
   global FOO
   bar $FOO
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If a program relies on a lot of constants, this can be extremely annoying.  To fix the problem, consider using the
 following typemap rule:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %apply int CONSTANT { int x };
 #define FOO 42
 ...
 void bar(int x);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When applied to an input argument, the <tt>CONSTANT</tt> rule allows a constant to be passed to a function using
 its actual value or a symbolic identifier name.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 proc blah {} {
   bar FOO
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When an identifier name is given, it is used to perform an implicit hash-table lookup of the value during argument
 conversion.  This allows the <tt>global</tt> statement to be omitted.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn19">36.3.5 Pointers</a></H3>


 <p>
 C/C++ pointers are fully supported by SWIG.  Furthermore, SWIG has no problem working with
 incomplete type information.  Here is a rather simple interface:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example

 FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);
 int fputs(const char *, FILE *);
 int fclose(FILE *);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When wrapped, you will be able to use the functions in a natural way from Tcl.
 For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./example.so
 % set f [fopen junk w]
 % fputs "Hello World\n" $f
 % fclose $f
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If this makes you uneasy, rest assured that there is no
 deep magic involved.  Underneath the covers, pointers to C/C++ objects are
 simply represented as opaque values--normally an encoded character
 string like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % puts $f
 _c0671108_p_FILE
 %
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 This pointer value can be freely passed around to different C functions that
 expect to receive an object of type <tt>FILE *</tt>.  The only thing you can't do is
 dereference the pointer from Tcl.
 </p>

 <p>
 The NULL pointer is represented by the string <tt>NULL</tt>.
 </p>

 <p>
 As much as you might be inclined to modify a pointer value directly
 from Tcl, don't.  The hexadecimal encoding is not necessarily the
 same as the logical memory address of the underlying object.  Instead
 it is the raw byte encoding of the pointer value.  The encoding will
 vary depending on the native byte-ordering of the platform (i.e.,
 big-endian vs. little-endian).  Similarly, don't try to manually cast
 a pointer to a new type by simply replacing the type-string.  This
 may not work like you expect and it is particularly dangerous when
 casting C++ objects. If you need to cast a pointer or
 change its value, consider writing some helper functions instead.  For
 example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %inline %{
 /* C-style cast */
 Bar *FooToBar(Foo *f) {
   return (Bar *) f;
 }

 /* C++-style cast */
 Foo *BarToFoo(Bar *b) {
   return dynamic_cast&lt;Foo*&gt;(b);
 }

 Foo *IncrFoo(Foo *f, int i) {
   return f+i;
 }
 %}
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Also, if working with C++, you should always try
 to use the new C++ style casts.  For example, in the above code, the
 C-style cast may return a bogus result whereas as the C++-style cast will return
 <tt>None</tt> if the conversion can't be performed.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn20">36.3.6 Structures</a></H3>


 <p>
 If you wrap a C structure, it is wrapped by a Tcl interface that somewhat resembles a Tk widget.
 This provides a very natural interface.  For example,
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 struct Vector {
   double x, y, z;
 };

 </pre></div>

 <p>
 is used as follows:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % Vector v
 % v configure -x 3.5 -y 7.2
 % puts "[v cget -x] [v cget -y] [v cget -z]"
 3.5 7.2 0.0
 %
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Similar access is provided for unions and the data members of C++ classes.
 </p>

 <p>
 In the above example, <tt>v</tt> is a name that's used for the object.  However,
 underneath the covers, there's a pointer to a raw C structure.  This can be obtained
 by looking at the <tt>-this</tt> attribute.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % puts [v cget -this]
 _88e31408_p_Vector
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Further details about the relationship between the Tcl and the underlying C structure
 are covered a little later.
 </p>

 <p>
 <tt>const</tt> members of a structure are read-only. Data members
 can also be forced to be read-only using the <tt>%immutable</tt> directive. For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 struct Foo {
   ...
   %immutable;
   int x;        /* Read-only members */
   char *name;
   %mutable;
   ...
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When <tt>char *</tt> members of a structure are wrapped, the contents are assumed to be
 dynamically allocated using <tt>malloc</tt> or <tt>new</tt> (depending on whether or not
 SWIG is run with the -c++ option).   When the structure member is set, the old contents will be
 released and a new value created.   If this is not the behavior you want, you will have to use
 a typemap (described later).
 </p>

 <p>
 If a structure contains arrays, access to those arrays is managed through pointers.  For
 example, consider this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 struct Bar {
   int  x[16];
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If accessed in Tcl, you will see behavior like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Bar b
 % puts [b cget -x]
 _801861a4_p_int
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 This pointer can be passed around to functions that expect to receive
 an <tt>int *</tt> (just like C).   You can also set the value of an array member using
 another pointer.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Bar c
 % c configure -x [b cget -x]   # Copy contents of b.x to c.x
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 For array assignment, SWIG copies the entire contents of the array starting with the data pointed
 to by <tt>b.x</tt>.   In this example, 16 integers would be copied.  Like C, SWIG makes
 no assumptions about bounds checking---if you pass a bad pointer, you may get a segmentation
 fault or access violation.
 </p>

 <p>
 When a member of a structure is itself a structure, it is handled as a
 pointer.  For example, suppose you have two structures like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 struct Foo {
   int a;
 };

 struct Bar {
   Foo f;
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Now, suppose that you access the <tt>f</tt> attribute of <tt>Bar</tt> like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Bar b
 % set x [b cget -f]
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In this case, <tt>x</tt> is a pointer that points to the <tt>Foo</tt> that is inside <tt>b</tt>.
 This is the same value as generated by this C code:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Bar b;
 Foo *x = &amp;b-&gt;f;       /* Points inside b */
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 However, one peculiarity of accessing a substructure like this is that the returned
 value does work quite like you might expect.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Bar b
 % set x [b cget -f]
 % x cget -a
 invalid command name "x"
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 This is because the returned value was not created in a normal way from the interpreter (x is
 not a command object). To make it function normally, just
 evaluate the variable like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Bar b
 % set x [b cget -f]
 % $x cget -a
 0
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In this example, <tt>x</tt> points inside the original structure.  This means that modifications
 work just like you would expect.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>

 % Bar b
 % set x [b cget -f]
 % $x configure -a 3            # Modifies contents of f (inside b)
 % [b cget -f] -configure -a 3  # Same thing
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In many of these structure examples, a simple name like "v" or "b" has been given
 to wrapped structures.  If necessary, this name can be passed to functions
 that expect to receive an object.  For example, if you have a function like this,
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void blah(Foo *f);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 you can call the function in Tcl as follows:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo x            # Create a Foo object
 % blah x           # Pass the object to a function
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 It is also possible to call the function using the raw pointer value. For
 instance:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % blah [x cget -this]   # Pass object to a function
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 It is also possible to create and use objects using variables.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % set b [Bar]            # Create a Bar
 % $b cget -f             # Member access
 % puts $b
 _108fea88_p_Bar
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Finally, to destroy objects created from Tcl, you can either let the object
 name go out of scope or you can explicitly delete the object.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f                 # Create object f
 % rename f ""
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 or
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f                 # Create object f
 % f -delete
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Note: Tcl only destroys the underlying object if it has ownership.  See the
 memory management section that appears shortly.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn21">36.3.7 C++ classes</a></H3>


 <p>
 C++ classes are wrapped as an extension of structure wrapping. For example, if you have this class,
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 class List {
 public:
   List();
   ~List();
   int  search(char *item);
   void insert(char *item);
   void remove(char *item);
   char *get(int n);
   int  length;
 };
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 you can use it in Tcl like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % List x
 % x insert Ale
 % x insert Stout
 % x insert Lager
 % x get 1
 Stout
 % puts [x cget -length]
 3
 %
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Class data members are accessed in the same manner as C structures.
 </p>

 <p>
 Static class members are accessed as global functions or variables.
 To illustrate, suppose you have a class like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Spam {
 public:
   static void foo();
   static int bar;
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In Tcl, the static member is accessed as follows:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Spam_foo        # Spam::foo()
 % puts $Spam_bar  # Spam::bar
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn22">36.3.8 C++ inheritance</a></H3>


 <p>
 SWIG is fully aware of issues related to C++ inheritance.  Therefore, if you have
 classes like this
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Foo {
 ...
 };

 class Bar : public Foo {
 ...
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 An object of type <tt>Bar</tt> can be used where a <tt>Foo</tt> is expected.  For
 example, if you have this function:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void spam(Foo *f);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 then the function <tt>spam()</tt> accepts a <tt>Foo *</tt> or a pointer to any class derived from <tt>Foo</tt>.
 For instance:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f      # Create a Foo
 % Bar b      # Create a Bar
 % spam f     # OK
 % spam b     # OK
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 It is safe to use multiple inheritance with SWIG.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn23">36.3.9 Pointers, references, values, and arrays</a></H3>


 <p>
 In C++, there are many different ways a function might receive
 and manipulate objects.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void spam1(Foo *x);      // Pass by pointer
 void spam2(Foo &amp;x);      // Pass by reference
 void spam3(Foo x);       // Pass by value
 void spam4(Foo x[]);     // Array of objects
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In Tcl, there is no detailed distinction like this.
 Because of this, SWIG unifies all of these types
 together in the wrapper code.  For instance, if you actually had the
 above functions, it is perfectly legal to do this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f             # Create a Foo
 % spam1 f           # Ok. Pointer
 % spam2 f           # Ok. Reference
 % spam3 f           # Ok. Value.
 % spam4 f           # Ok. Array (1 element)
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Similar behavior occurs for return values.  For example, if you had
 functions like this,
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Foo *spam5();
 Foo &amp;spam6();
 Foo  spam7();
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 then all three functions will return a pointer to some <tt>Foo</tt> object.
 Since the third function (spam7) returns a value, newly allocated memory is used
 to hold the result and a pointer is returned (Tcl will release this memory
 when the return value is garbage collected).
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn24">36.3.10 C++ overloaded functions</a></H3>


 <p>
 C++ overloaded functions, methods, and constructors are mostly supported by SWIG.  For example,
 if you have two functions like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void foo(int);
 void foo(char *c);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 You can use them in Tcl in a straightforward manner:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % foo 3            # foo(int)
 % foo Hello        # foo(char *c)
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Similarly, if you have a class like this,
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Foo {
 public:
   Foo();
   Foo(const Foo &amp;);
   ...
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 you can write Tcl code like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f                # Create a Foo
 % Foo g f              # Copy f
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Overloading support is not quite as flexible as in C++. Sometimes there are methods that SWIG
 can't disambiguate. For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void spam(int);
 void spam(short);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 or
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void foo(Bar *b);
 void foo(Bar &amp;b);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If declarations such as these appear, you will get a warning message like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 example.i:12: Warning 509: Overloaded method spam(short) effectively ignored,
 example.i:11: Warning 509: as it is shadowed by spam(int).
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 To fix this, you either need to ignore or rename one of the methods.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %rename(spam_short) spam(short);
 ...
 void spam(int);
 void spam(short);   // Accessed as spam_short
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 or
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %ignore spam(short);
 ...
 void spam(int);
 void spam(short);   // Ignored
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 SWIG resolves overloaded functions and methods using a disambiguation scheme that ranks and sorts
 declarations according to a set of type-precedence rules.    The order in which declarations appear
 in the input does not matter except in situations where ambiguity arises--in this case, the
 first declaration takes precedence.
 </p>

 <p>
 Please refer to the "SWIG and C++" chapter for more information about overloading.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn25">36.3.11 C++ operators</a></H3>


 <p>
 Certain C++ overloaded operators can be handled automatically by SWIG.  For example,
 consider a class like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Complex {
 private:
   double rpart, ipart;
 public:
   Complex(double r = 0, double i = 0) : rpart(r), ipart(i) { }
   Complex(const Complex &amp;c) : rpart(c.rpart), ipart(c.ipart) { }
   Complex &amp;operator=(const Complex &amp;c);
   Complex operator+(const Complex &amp;c) const;
   Complex operator-(const Complex &amp;c) const;
   Complex operator*(const Complex &amp;c) const;
   Complex operator-() const;

   double re() const { return rpart; }
   double im() const { return ipart; }
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When wrapped, it works like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Complex c 3 4
 % Complex d 7 8
 % set e [c + d]
 % $e re
 10.0
 % $e im
 12.0
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 It should be stressed that operators in SWIG have no relationship to operators
 in Tcl.  In fact, the only thing that's happening here is that an operator like
 <tt>operator +</tt> has been renamed to a method <tt>+</tt>.    Therefore, the
 statement <tt>[c + d]</tt> is really just invoking the <tt>+</tt> method on <tt>c</tt>.
 When more than operator is defined (with different arguments), the standard
 method overloading facilities are used.  Here is a rather odd looking example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Complex c 3 4
 % Complex d 7 8
 % set e [c - d]       # operator-(const Complex &amp;)
 % puts "[$e re] [$e im]"
 10.0 12.0
 % set f [c -]         # operator-()
 % puts "[$f re] [$f im]"
 -3.0 -4.0
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 One restriction with operator overloading support is that SWIG is not
 able to fully handle operators that aren't defined as part of the class.
 For example, if you had code like this
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Complex {
 ...
 friend Complex operator+(double, const Complex &amp;c);
 ...
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 then SWIG doesn't know what to do with the friend function--in fact,
 it simply ignores it and issues a warning.   You can still wrap the operator,
 but you may have to encapsulate it in a special function.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %rename(Complex_add_dc) operator+(double, const Complex &amp;);
 ...
 Complex operator+(double, const Complex &amp;c);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 There are ways to make this operator appear as part of the class using the <tt>%extend</tt> directive.
 Keep reading.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn26">36.3.12 C++ namespaces</a></H3>


 <p>
 SWIG is aware of C++ namespaces, but namespace names do not appear in
 the module nor do namespaces result in a module that is broken up into
 submodules or packages.  For example, if you have a file like this,
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example

 namespace foo {
   int fact(int n);
   struct Vector {
     double x, y, z;
   };
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 it works in Tcl as follows:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./example.so
 % fact 3
 6
 % Vector v
 % v configure -x 3.4
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If your program has more than one namespace, name conflicts (if any) can be resolved using <tt>%rename</tt>
 For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %rename(Bar_spam) Bar::spam;

 namespace Foo {
   int spam();
 }

 namespace Bar {
   int spam();
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If you have more than one namespace and your want to keep their
 symbols separate, consider wrapping them as separate SWIG modules.
 For example, make the module name the same as the namespace and create
 extension modules for each namespace separately.  If your program
 utilizes thousands of small deeply nested namespaces each with
 identical symbol names, well, then you get what you deserve.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn27">36.3.13 C++ templates</a></H3>


 <p>
 C++ templates don't present a huge problem for SWIG.  However, in order
 to create wrappers, you have to tell SWIG to create wrappers for a particular
 template instantiation.  To do this, you use the <tt>%template</tt> directive.
 For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example
 %{
 #include "pair.h"
 %}

 template&lt;class T1, class T2&gt;
 struct pair {
   typedef T1 first_type;
   typedef T2 second_type;
   T1 first;
   T2 second;
   pair();
   pair(const T1&amp;, const T2&amp;);
   ~pair();
 };

 %template(pairii) pair&lt;int, int&gt;;
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In Tcl:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % pairii p 3 4
 % p cget -first
 3
 % p cget -second
 4
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Obviously, there is more to template wrapping than shown in this example.
 More details can be found in the <a href="SWIGPlus.html#SWIGPlus">SWIG and C++</a> chapter.   Some more complicated
 examples will appear later.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn28">36.3.14 C++ Smart Pointers</a></H3>


 <p>
 In certain C++ programs, it is common to use classes that have been wrapped by
 so-called "smart pointers."   Generally, this involves the use of a template class
 that implements <tt>operator-&gt;()</tt> like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 template&lt;class T&gt; class SmartPtr {
   ...
   T *operator-&gt;();
   ...
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Then, if you have a class like this,
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Foo {
 public:
   int x;
   int bar();
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 A smart pointer would be used in C++ as follows:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 SmartPtr&lt;Foo&gt; p = CreateFoo();   // Created somehow (not shown)
 ...
 p-&gt;x = 3;                        // Foo::x
 int y = p-&gt;bar();                // Foo::bar
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 To wrap this in Tcl, simply tell SWIG about the <tt>SmartPtr</tt> class and the low-level
 <tt>Foo</tt> object.  Make sure you instantiate <tt>SmartPtr</tt> using <tt>%template</tt> if necessary.
 For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example
 ...
 %template(SmartPtrFoo) SmartPtr&lt;Foo&gt;;
 ...
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Now, in Tcl, everything should just "work":
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % set p [CreateFoo]                  # Create a smart-pointer somehow
 % $p configure -x 3                  # Foo::x
 % $p bar                             # Foo::bar
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If you ever need to access the underlying pointer returned by <tt>operator-&gt;()</tt> itself,
 simply use the <tt>__deref__()</tt> method.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % set f [$p __deref__]    # Returns underlying Foo *
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn29">36.4 Further details on the Tcl class interface</a></H2>


 <p>
 In the previous section, a high-level view of Tcl wrapping was
 presented.  A key component of this wrapping is that structures and
 classes are wrapped by Tcl class-like objects. This provides a very
 natural Tcl interface and allows SWIG to support a number of
 advanced features such as operator overloading.   However, a number
 of low-level details were omitted.  This section provides a brief overview
 of how the proxy classes work.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn30">36.4.1 Proxy classes</a></H3>


 <p>
 In the <a href="SWIG.html#SWIG">"SWIG basics"</a> and <a href="SWIGPlus.html#SWIGPlus">"SWIG and C++"</a> chapters,
 details of low-level structure and class wrapping are described.  To summarize those chapters, if you
 have a class like this
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Foo {
 public:
   int x;
   int spam(int);
   ...
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 then SWIG transforms it into a set of low-level procedural wrappers. For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Foo *new_Foo() {
   return new Foo();
 }
 void delete_Foo(Foo *f) {
   delete f;
 }
 int Foo_x_get(Foo *f) {
   return f-&gt;x;
 }
 void Foo_x_set(Foo *f, int value) {
   f-&gt;x = value;
 }
 int Foo_spam(Foo *f, int arg1) {
   return f-&gt;spam(arg1);
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 These wrappers are actually found in the Tcl extension module.  For example, you can certainly do this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % load ./example.so
 % set f [new_Foo]
 % Foo_x_get $f
 0
 % Foo_spam $f 3
 1
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 However, in addition to this, the classname <tt>Foo</tt> is used as an object constructor
 function.   This allows objects to be encapsulated objects that look a lot like Tk widgets
 as shown in the last section.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn31">36.4.2 Memory management</a></H3>


 <p>
 Associated with each wrapped object, is an ownership flag <tt>thisown</tt>   The value of this
 flag determines who is responsible for deleting the underlying C++ object.  If set to 1,
 the Tcl interpreter destroys the C++ object when the proxy class is
 garbage collected.   If set to 0 (or if the attribute is missing), then the destruction
 of the proxy class has no effect on the C++ object.
 </p>

 <p>
 When an object is created by a constructor or returned by value, Tcl automatically takes
 ownership of the result.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Foo {
 public:
   Foo();
   Foo bar();
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In Tcl:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f
 % f cget -thisown
 1
 % set g [f bar]
 % $g cget -thisown
 1
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 On the other hand, when pointers are returned to Tcl, there is often no way to know where
 they came from.  Therefore, the ownership is set to zero.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Foo {
 public:
   ...
   Foo *spam();
   ...
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <br>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f
 % set s [f spam]
 % $s cget -thisown
 0
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 This behavior is especially important for classes that act as
 containers.  For example, if a method returns a pointer to an object
 that is contained inside another object, you definitely don't want
 Tcl to assume ownership and destroy it!
 </p>

 <p>
 Related to containers, ownership issues can arise whenever an object is assigned to a member
 or global variable.  For example, consider this interface:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example

 struct Foo {
   int  value;
   Foo  *next;
 };

 Foo *head = 0;
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When wrapped in Tcl, careful observation will reveal that ownership changes whenever an object
 is assigned to a global variable.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f
 % f cget -thisown
 1
 % set head f
 % f cget -thisown
 0
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In this case, C is now holding a reference to the object---you probably don't want Tcl to destroy it.
 Similarly, this occurs for members.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Foo f
 % Foo g
 % f cget -thisown
 1
 % g cget -thisown
 1
 % f configure -next g
 % g cget -thisown
 0
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 For the most part, memory management issues remain hidden.  However,
 there are occasionally situations where you might have to manually
 change the ownership of an object.  For instance, consider code like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 class Node {
   Object *value;
 public:
   void set_value(Object *v) { value = v; }
   ...
 };
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Now, consider the following Tcl code:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % Object v                 # Create an object
 % Node n                   # Create a node
 % n setvalue v             # Set value
 % v cget -thisown
 1
 %
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In this case, the object <tt>n</tt> is holding a reference to
 <tt>v</tt> internally.  However, SWIG has no way to know that this
 has occurred.  Therefore, Tcl still thinks that it has ownership of the
 object.  Should the proxy object be destroyed, then the C++ destructor
 will be invoked and <tt>n</tt> will be holding a stale-pointer.  If
 you're lucky, you will only get a segmentation fault.
 </p>

 <p>
 To work around this, it is always possible to flip the ownership flag. For example,
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % v -disown              # Give ownership to C/C++
 % v -acquire             # Acquire ownership
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 It is also possible to deal with situations like this using
 typemaps--an advanced topic discussed later.
 </p>


 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn32">36.5 Input and output parameters</a></H2>


 <p>
 A common problem in some C programs is handling parameters passed as simple pointers.  For
 example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void add(int x, int y, int *result) {
   *result = x + y;
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 or perhaps
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 int sub(int *x, int *y) {
   return *x+*y;
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 The easiest way to handle these situations is to use the <tt>typemaps.i</tt> file.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example
 %include "typemaps.i"

 void add(int, int, int *OUTPUT);
 int  sub(int *INPUT, int *INPUT);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In Tcl, this allows you to pass simple values instead of pointer.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 set a [add 3 4]
 puts $a
 7
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Notice how the <tt>INPUT</tt> parameters allow integer values to be passed instead of pointers
 and how the <tt>OUTPUT</tt> parameter creates a return result.
 </p>

 <p>
 If you don't want to use the names <tt>INPUT</tt> or <tt>OUTPUT</tt>, use the <tt>%apply</tt>
 directive.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example
 %include "typemaps.i"

 %apply int *OUTPUT { int *result };
 %apply int *INPUT  { int *x, int *y};

 void add(int x, int y, int *result);
 int  sub(int *x, int *y);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If a function mutates one of its parameters like this,
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void negate(int *x) {
   *x = -(*x);
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 you can use <tt>INOUT</tt> like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %include "typemaps.i"
 ...
 void negate(int *INOUT);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In Tcl, a mutated parameter shows up as a return value.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 set a [negate 3]
 puts $a
 -3
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 The most common use of these special typemap rules is to handle functions that
 return more than one value.   For example, sometimes a function returns a result
 as well as a special error code:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 /* send message, return number of bytes sent, along with success code */
 int send_message(char *text, int len, int *success);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 To wrap such a function, simply use the <tt>OUTPUT</tt> rule above. For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example
 %include "typemaps.i"
 %apply int *OUTPUT { int *success };
 ...
 int send_message(char *text, int *success);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When used in Tcl, the function will return multiple values as a list.
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 set r [send_message "Hello World"]
 set bytes [lindex $r 0]
 set success [lindex $r 1]
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Another common use of multiple return values are in query functions.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 void get_dimensions(Matrix *m, int *rows, int *columns);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 To wrap this, you might use the following:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %module example
 %include "typemaps.i"
 %apply int *OUTPUT { int *rows, int *columns };
 ...
 void get_dimensions(Matrix *m, int *rows, *columns);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Now, in Perl:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 set dim [get_dimensions $m]
 set r  [lindex $dim 0]
 set c  [lindex $dim 1]
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn33">36.6 Exception handling </a></H2>


 <p>
 The <tt>%exception</tt> directive can be used to create a user-definable
 exception handler in charge of converting exceptions in your C/C++
 program into Tcl exceptions.  The chapter on customization features
 contains more details, but suppose you extended the array example into
 a C++ class like the following :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 class RangeError {};   // Used for an exception

 class DoubleArray {
   private:
     int n;
     double *ptr;
   public:
     // Create a new array of fixed size
     DoubleArray(int size) {
       ptr = new double[size];
       n = size;
     }
     // Destroy an array
     ~DoubleArray() {
       delete ptr;
     }
     // Return the length of the array
     int   length() {
       return n;
     }

     // Get an item from the array and perform bounds checking.
     double getitem(int i) {
       if ((i &gt;= 0) &amp;&amp; (i &lt; n))
         return ptr[i];
       else
         throw RangeError();
     }

     // Set an item in the array and perform bounds checking.
     void setitem(int i, double val) {
       if ((i &gt;= 0) &amp;&amp; (i &lt; n))
         ptr[i] = val;
       else {
         throw RangeError();
       }
     }
   };
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 The functions associated with this class can throw a C++ range
 exception for an out-of-bounds array access.  We can catch this in our
 Tcl extension by specifying the following in an interface file :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 %exception {
   try {
     $action                // Gets substituted by actual function call
   }
   catch (RangeError) {
     Tcl_SetResult(interp, (char *)"Array index out-of-bounds", TCL_STATIC);
     return TCL_ERROR;
   }
 }
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 As shown, the exception handling code will be added to every wrapper function.
 Since this is somewhat inefficient.  You might consider refining the
 exception handler to only apply to specific methods like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %exception getitem {
   try {
     $action
   }
   catch (RangeError) {
     Tcl_SetResult(interp, (char *)"Array index out-of-bounds", TCL_STATIC);
     return TCL_ERROR;
   }
 }

 %exception setitem {
   try {
     $action
   }
   catch (RangeError) {
     Tcl_SetResult(interp, (char *)"Array index out-of-bounds", TCL_STATIC);
     return TCL_ERROR;
   }
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In this case, the exception handler is only attached to methods and functions
 named <tt>getitem</tt> and <tt>setitem</tt>.
 </p>

 <p>
 If you had a lot of different methods, you can avoid extra typing by using a macro.
 For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %define RANGE_ERROR
 {
   try {
     $action
   }
   catch (RangeError) {
     Tcl_SetResult(interp, (char *)"Array index out-of-bounds", TCL_STATIC);
     return TCL_ERROR;
   }
 }
 %enddef

 %exception getitem RANGE_ERROR;
 %exception setitem RANGE_ERROR;
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 Since SWIG's exception handling is user-definable, you are not limited to C++ exception handling.
 See the chapter on "<a href="Customization.html#Customization">Customization Features</a>" for more examples.
 </p>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn34">36.7 Typemaps</a></H2>


 <p>
 This section describes how you can modify SWIG's default wrapping behavior
 for various C/C++ datatypes using the <tt>%typemap</tt> directive.   This
 is an advanced topic that assumes familiarity with the Tcl C API as well
 as the material in the "<a href="Typemaps.html#Typemaps">Typemaps</a>" chapter.
 </p>

 <p>
 Before proceeding, it should be stressed that typemaps are not a required
 part of using SWIG---the default wrapping behavior is enough in most cases.
 Typemaps are only used if you want to change some aspect of the primitive
 C-Tcl interface.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn35">36.7.1 What is a typemap?</a></H3>


 <p>
 A typemap is nothing more than a code generation rule that is attached to
 a specific C datatype.   For example, to convert integers from Tcl to C,
 you might define a typemap like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 %module example

 %typemap(in) int {
   if (Tcl_GetIntFromObj(interp, $input, &amp;$1) == TCL_ERROR)
     return TCL_ERROR;
   printf("Received an integer : %d\n", $1);
 }
 %inline %{
 extern int fact(int n);
 %}
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Typemaps are always associated with some specific aspect of code generation.
 In this case, the "in" method refers to the conversion of input arguments
 to C/C++.  The datatype <tt>int</tt> is the datatype to which the typemap
 will be applied.  The supplied C code is used to convert values.  In this
 code a number of special variable prefaced by a <tt>$</tt> are used.  The
 <tt>$1</tt> variable is placeholder for a local variable of type <tt>int</tt>.
 The <tt>$input</tt> variable is the input object of type <tt>Tcl_Obj *</tt>.
 </p>

 <p>
 When this example is compiled into a Tcl module, it operates as follows:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % load ./example.so
 % fact 6
 Received an integer : 6
 720
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 In this example, the typemap is applied to all occurrences of the <tt>int</tt> datatype.
 You can refine this by supplying an optional parameter name.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 %module example

 %typemap(in) int n {
   if (Tcl_GetIntFromObj(interp, $input, &amp;$1) == TCL_ERROR)
     return TCL_ERROR;
   printf("n = %d\n", $1);
 }
 %inline %{
 extern int fact(int n);
 %}
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 In this case, the typemap code is only attached to arguments that exactly match <tt>int n</tt>.
 </p>

 <p>
 The application of a typemap to specific datatypes and argument names involves
 more than simple text-matching--typemaps are fully integrated into the
 SWIG type-system.   When you define a typemap for <tt>int</tt>, that typemap
 applies to <tt>int</tt> and qualified variations such as <tt>const int</tt>.  In addition,
 the typemap system follows <tt>typedef</tt> declarations.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(in) int n {
   if (Tcl_GetIntFromObj(interp, $input, &amp;$1) == TCL_ERROR)
     return TCL_ERROR;
   printf("n = %d\n", $1);
 }
 %inline %{
 typedef int Integer;
 extern int fact(Integer n);    // Above typemap is applied
 %}
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 However, the matching of <tt>typedef</tt> only occurs in one direction.  If you
 defined a typemap for <tt>Integer</tt>, it is not applied to arguments of
 type <tt>int</tt>.
 </p>

 <p>
 Typemaps can also be defined for groups of consecutive arguments.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(in) (char *str, int len) {
     $1 = Tcl_GetStringFromObj($input, &amp;$2);
 };

 int count(char c, char *str, int len);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 When a multi-argument typemap is defined, the arguments are always handled as a single
 Tcl object.  This allows the function to be used like this (notice how the length
 parameter is omitted):
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % count e "Hello World"
 1
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn36">36.7.2 Tcl typemaps</a></H3>


 <p>
 The previous section illustrated an "in" typemap for converting Tcl objects to C.
 A variety of different typemap methods are defined by the Tcl module.  For example,
 to convert a C integer back into a Tcl object, you might define an "out" typemap
 like this:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(out) int {
   Tcl_SetObjResult(interp, Tcl_NewIntObj($1));
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 The following list details all of the typemap methods that can be used by the Tcl module:
 </p>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(in)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Converts Tcl objects to input function arguments
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(out)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Converts return value of a C function to a Tcl object
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(varin)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Assigns a C global variable from a Tcl object
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(varout)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Returns a C global variable as a Tcl object
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(freearg)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Cleans up a function argument (if necessary)
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(argout)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Output argument processing
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(ret)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Cleanup of function return values
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(consttab)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Creation of Tcl constants (constant table)
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(constcode)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Creation of Tcl constants (init function)
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(memberin)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Setting of structure/class member data
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(globalin)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Setting of C global variables
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(check)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Checks function input values.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(default)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Set a default value for an argument (making it optional).
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>%typemap(arginit)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Initialize an argument to a value before any conversions occur.
 </div>

 <p>
 Examples of these methods will appear shortly.
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn37">36.7.3 Typemap variables</a></H3>


 <p>
 Within typemap code, a number of special variables prefaced with a <tt>$</tt> may appear.
 A full list of variables can be found in the "<a href="Typemaps.html#Typemaps">Typemaps</a>" chapter.
 This is a list of the most common variables:
 </p>

 <p>
 <tt>$1</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 A C local variable corresponding to the actual type specified in the
 <tt>%typemap</tt> directive.  For input values, this is a C local variable
 that's supposed to hold an argument value.  For output values, this is
 the raw result that's supposed to be returned to Tcl.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>$input</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
  A <tt>Tcl_Obj *</tt> holding a raw Tcl object with an argument or variable value.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>$result</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 A <tt>Tcl_Obj *</tt> that holds the result to be returned to Tcl.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>$1_name</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 The parameter name that was matched.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>$1_type</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 The actual C datatype matched by the typemap.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>$1_ltype</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 An assignable version of the datatype matched by the typemap (a type that can appear on the left-hand-side of
 a C assignment operation).  This type is stripped of qualifiers and may be an altered version of <tt>$1_type</tt>.
 All arguments and local variables in wrapper functions are declared using this type so that their values can be
 properly assigned.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>$symname</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 The Tcl name of the wrapper function being created.
 </div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn38">36.7.4 Converting  a Tcl list to a char ** </a></H3>


 <p>
 A common problem in many C programs is the processing of command line
 arguments, which are usually passed in an array of NULL terminated
 strings.  The following SWIG interface file allows a Tcl list to be
 used as a <tt>char **</tt> object.
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 %module argv

 // This tells SWIG to treat char ** as a special case
 %typemap(in) char ** {
   Tcl_Obj **listobjv;
   int       nitems;
   int       i;
   if (Tcl_ListObjGetElements(interp, $input, &amp;nitems, &amp;listobjv) == TCL_ERROR) {
     return TCL_ERROR;
   }
   $1 = (char **) malloc((nitems+1)*sizeof(char *));
   for (i = 0; i &lt; nitems; i++) {
     $1[i] = Tcl_GetStringFromObj(listobjv[i], 0);
   }
   $1[i] = 0;
 }

 // This gives SWIG some cleanup code that will get called after the function call
 %typemap(freearg) char ** {
   if ($1) {
     free($1);
   }
 }

 // Now a test functions
 %inline %{
   int print_args(char **argv) {
     int i = 0;
     while (argv[i]) {
       printf("argv[%d] = %s\n", i, argv[i]);
       i++;
     }
     return i;
   }
 %}
 %include "tclsh.i"

 </pre></div>

 <p>
 In Tcl:
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % print_args {John Guido Larry}
 argv[0] = John
 argv[1] = Guido
 argv[2] = Larry
 3
 </pre></div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn39">36.7.5 Returning values in arguments</a></H3>


 <p>
 The "argout" typemap can be used to return a value originating from a
 function argument. For example :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 // A typemap defining how to return an argument by appending it to the result
 %typemap(argout) double *outvalue {
   Tcl_Obj *o = Tcl_NewDoubleObj($1);
   Tcl_ListObjAppendElement(interp, $result, o);
 }

 // A typemap telling SWIG to ignore an argument for input
 // However, we still need to pass a pointer to the C function
 %typemap(in, numinputs=0) double *outvalue (double temp) {
   $1 = &amp;temp;
 }

 // Now a function returning two values
 int mypow(double a, double b, double *outvalue) {
   if ((a &lt; 0) || (b &lt; 0)) return -1;
   *outvalue = pow(a, b);
   return 0;
 };
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 When wrapped, SWIG matches the <tt>argout</tt> typemap to the
 "<tt>double *outvalue</tt>" argument. The numinputs=0 specification tells SWIG
 to simply ignore this argument when generating wrapper code.  As a
 result, a Tcl function using these typemaps will work like this :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 % mypow 2 3     # Returns two values, a status value and the result
 0 8
 %
 </pre></div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn40">36.7.6 Useful functions</a></H3>


 <p>
 The following tables provide some functions that may be useful in
 writing Tcl typemaps.
 </p>

 <p>
 <b>Integers</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Tcl_Obj   *Tcl_NewIntObj(int Value);
 void       Tcl_SetIntObj(Tcl_Obj *obj, int Value);
 int        Tcl_GetIntFromObj(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *obj, int *ip);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 <b>Floating Point</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Tcl_Obj  *Tcl_NewDoubleObj(double Value);
 void      Tcl_SetDoubleObj(Tcl_Obj *obj, double value);
 int       Tcl_GetDoubleFromObj(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *o, double *dp);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 <b>Strings</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Tcl_Obj  *Tcl_NewStringObj(char *str, int len);
 char     *Tcl_GetStringFromObj(Tcl_Obj *obj, int *len);
 void      Tcl_AppendToObj(Tcl_Obj *obj, char *str, int len);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 <b>Lists</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Tcl_Obj  *Tcl_NewListObj(int objc, Tcl_Obj *objv);
 int       Tcl_ListObjAppendList(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *listPtr, Tcl_Obj *elemListPtr);
 int       Tcl_ListObjAppendElement(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *listPtr, Tcl_Obj *element);
 int       Tcl_ListObjGetElements(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *listPtr, int *objcPtr,
                                  Tcl_Obj ***objvPtr);
 int       Tcl_ListObjLength(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *listPtr, int *intPtr);
 int       Tcl_ListObjIndex(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *listPtr, int index,
                            Tcl_Obj_Obj **objptr);
 int       Tcl_ListObjReplace(Tcl_Interp *, Tcl_Obj *listPtr, int first, int count,
                              int objc, Tcl_Obj *objv);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 <b>Objects</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 Tcl_Obj *Tcl_DuplicateObj(Tcl_Obj *obj);
 void     Tcl_IncrRefCount(Tcl_Obj *obj);
 void     Tcl_DecrRefCount(Tcl_Obj *obj);
 int      Tcl_IsShared(Tcl_Obj *obj);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn41">36.7.7 Standard  typemaps</a></H3>


 <p>
 The following typemaps show how to convert a few common kinds of
 objects between Tcl and C (and to give a better idea of how typemaps
 work)
 </p>


 <p>
 <b>Integer conversion</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(in) int, short, long {
   int temp;
   if (Tcl_GetIntFromObj(interp, $input, &amp;temp) == TCL_ERROR)
     return TCL_ERROR;
   $1 = ($1_ltype) temp;
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <br>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(out) int, short, long {
   Tcl_SetIntObj($result, (int) $1);
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 <b>Floating point conversion</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(in) float, double {
   double temp;
   if (Tcl_GetDoubleFromObj(interp, $input, &amp;temp) == TCL_ERROR)
     return TCL_ERROR;
   $1 = ($1_ltype) temp;
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <br>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(out) float, double {
   Tcl_SetDoubleObj($result, $1);
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 <b>String Conversion</b>
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(in) char * {
   int len;
   $1 = Tcl_GetStringFromObj(interp, &amp;len);
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <br>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 %typemap(out, noblock=1, fragment="SWIG_FromCharPtr") char *, const char * {
   Tcl_SetObjResult(interp, SWIG_FromCharPtr((const char *)$1));
 }

 </pre>
 </div>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn42">36.7.8 Pointer handling</a></H3>


 <p>
 SWIG pointers are mapped into Tcl strings containing the
 hexadecimal value and type.  The following functions can be used to
 create and read pointer values.
 </p>

 <p>
 <tt>
 int SWIG_ConvertPtr(Tcl_Obj *obj, void **ptr, swig_type_info *ty, int flags)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Converts a Tcl object <tt>obj</tt> to a C pointer.  The result of the conversion is placed
 into the pointer located at <tt>ptr</tt>.  <tt>ty</tt> is a SWIG type descriptor structure.
 <tt>flags</tt> is used to handle error checking and other aspects of conversion.  It is currently
 reserved for future expansion. Returns 0 on success and -1 on error.
 </div>

 <p>
 <tt>
 Tcl_Obj *SWIG_NewPointerObj(void *ptr, swig_type_info *ty, int flags)</tt>
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 Creates a new Tcl pointer object.  <tt>ptr</tt> is the pointer to convert, <tt>ty</tt> is the SWIG type descriptor structure that
 describes the type, and <tt>own</tt> is a flag reserved for future expansion.
 </div>

 <p>
 Both of these functions require the use of a special SWIG
 type-descriptor structure.  This structure contains information about
 the mangled name of the datatype, type-equivalence information, as
 well as information about converting pointer values under C++
 inheritance.   For a type of <tt>Foo *</tt>, the type descriptor structure
 is usually accessed as follows:
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 <pre>
 Foo *f;
 if (!SWIG_IsOK(SWIG_ConvertPtr($input, (void **) &amp;f, SWIGTYPE_p_Foo, 0))) {
   SWIG_exception_fail(SWIG_TypeError, "in method '$symname', expecting type Foo");
 }

 Tcl_Obj *;
 obj = SWIG_NewPointerObj(f, SWIGTYPE_p_Foo, 0);
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 In a typemap, the type descriptor should always be accessed using the special typemap
 variable <tt>$1_descriptor</tt>.  For example:
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 <pre>
 %typemap(in) Foo * {
   if (!SWIG_IsOK(SWIG_ConvertPtr($input, (void **) &amp;$1, $1_descriptor, 0))) {
     SWIG_exception_fail(SWIG_TypeError, "in method '$symname', expecting type Foo");
   }
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 If necessary, the descriptor for any type can be obtained using the <tt>$descriptor()</tt> macro in a typemap.
 For example:
 </p>

 <div class="indent">
 <pre>
 %typemap(in) Foo * {
   if (!SWIG_IsOK(SWIG_ConvertPtr($input, (void **) &amp;$1, $descriptor(Foo *), 0))) {
     SWIG_exception_fail(SWIG_TypeError, "in method '$symname', expecting type Foo");
   }
 }
 </pre>
 </div>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn43">36.8 Turning a SWIG module into a Tcl Package.</a></H2>


 <p>
 Tcl 7.4 introduced the idea of an extension package.  By default, SWIG
 generates all of the code necessary to create a package. To set the package version,
 simply use the <tt>-pkgversion</tt> option. For example:
 </p>

 <div class="code">
 <pre>
 % swig -tcl -pkgversion 2.3 example.i
 </pre>
 </div>

 <p>
 After building the SWIG generated module, you need to execute
 the "<tt>pkg_mkIndex</tt>" command inside tclsh.  For example :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 unix &gt; tclsh
 % pkg_mkIndex . example.so
 % exit
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 This creates a file "<tt>pkgIndex.tcl</tt>" with information about the
 package.  To use your package, you now need to move it to its own
 subdirectory which has the same name as the package. For example :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 ./example/
            pkgIndex.tcl           # The file created by pkg_mkIndex
            example.so             # The SWIG generated module
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Finally, assuming that you're not entirely confused at this point,
 make sure that the example subdirectory is visible from the
 directories contained in either the <tt>tcl_library</tt> or
 <tt>auto_path</tt> variables.  At this point you're ready to use the
 package as follows :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 unix &gt; tclsh
 % package require example
 % fact 4
 24
 %
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 If  you're working with an example in the current directory and this doesn't work, do this instead :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 unix &gt; tclsh
 % lappend auto_path .
 % package require example
 % fact 4
 24
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 As a final note, most SWIG examples do not yet use the
 <tt>package</tt> commands. For simple extensions it may be easier just
 to use the <tt>load</tt> command instead.
 </p>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn44">36.9 Building new kinds of Tcl interfaces (in Tcl)</a></H2>


 <p>
 One of the most interesting aspects of Tcl and SWIG is that you can
 create entirely new kinds of Tcl interfaces in Tcl using the low-level
 SWIG accessor functions.  For example, suppose you had a library of
 helper functions to access arrays :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 /* File : array.i */
 %module array

 %inline %{
 double *new_double(int size) {
   return (double *) malloc(size*sizeof(double));
 }
 void delete_double(double *a) {
   free(a);
 }
 double get_double(double *a, int index) {
   return a[index];
 }
 void set_double(double *a, int index, double val) {
   a[index] = val;
 }
 int *new_int(int size) {
   return (int *) malloc(size*sizeof(int));
 }
 void delete_int(int *a) {
   free(a);
 }
 int get_int(int *a, int index) {
   return a[index];
 }
 int set_int(int *a, int index, int val) {
   a[index] = val;
 }
 %}

 </pre></div>

 <p>
 While these could be called directly, we could also write a Tcl script
 like this :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 proc Array {type size} {
     set ptr [new_$type $size]
     set code {
         set method [lindex $args 0]
         set parms [concat $ptr [lrange $args 1 end]]
         switch $method {
             get {return [eval "get_$type $parms"]}
             set {return [eval "set_$type $parms"]}
             delete {eval "delete_$type $ptr; rename $ptr {}"}
         }
     }
     # Create a procedure
     uplevel "proc $ptr args {set ptr $ptr; set type $type;$code}"
     return $ptr
 }
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Our script allows easy array access as follows :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 set a [Array double 100]                   ;# Create a double [100]
 for {set i 0} {$i &lt; 100} {incr i 1} {      ;# Clear the array
         $a set $i 0.0
 }
 $a set 3 3.1455                            ;# Set an individual element
 set b [$a get 10]                          ;# Retrieve an element

 set ia [Array int 50]                      ;# Create an int[50]
 for {set i 0} {$i &lt; 50} {incr i 1} {       ;# Clear it
         $ia set $i 0
 }
 $ia set 3 7                                ;# Set an individual element
 set ib [$ia get 10]                        ;# Get an individual element

 $a delete                                  ;# Destroy a
 $ia delete                                 ;# Destroy ia
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 The cool thing about this approach is that it makes a common interface
 for two different types of arrays.  In fact, if we were to add more C
 datatypes to our wrapper file, the Tcl code would work with those as
 well--without modification.  If an unsupported datatype was requested,
 the Tcl code would simply return with an error so there is very little
 danger of blowing something up (although it is easily accomplished
 with an out of bounds array access).
 </p>

 <H3><a name="Tcl_nn45">36.9.1 Proxy classes</a></H3>


 <p>
 A similar approach can be applied to proxy classes (also known as
 shadow classes).  The following
 example is provided by Erik Bierwagen and Paul Saxe.  To use it, run
 SWIG with the <tt>-noobject</tt> option (which disables the builtin
 object oriented interface).  When running Tcl, simply source this
 file.  Now, objects can be used in a more or less natural fashion.
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 # swig_c++.tcl
 # Provides a simple object oriented interface using
 # SWIG's low level interface.
 #

 proc new {objectType handle_r args} {
     # Creates a new SWIG object of the given type,
     # returning a handle in the variable "handle_r".
     #
     # Also creates a procedure for the object and a trace on
     # the handle variable that deletes the object when the
     # handle variable is overwritten or unset
     upvar $handle_r handle
     #
     # Create the new object
     #
     eval set handle \[new_$objectType $args\]
     #
     # Set up the object procedure
     #
     proc $handle {cmd args} "eval ${objectType}_\$cmd $handle \$args"
     #
     # And the trace ...
     #
     uplevel trace variable $handle_r uw "{deleteObject $objectType $handle}"
     #
     # Return the handle so that 'new' can be used as an argument to a procedure
     #
     return $handle
 }

 proc deleteObject {objectType handle name element op} {
     #
     # Check that the object handle has a reasonable form
     #
     if {![regexp {_[0-9a-f]*_(.+)_p} $handle]} {
         error "deleteObject: not a valid object handle: $handle"
     }
     #
     # Remove the object procedure
     #
     catch {rename $handle {}}
     #
     # Delete the object
     #
     delete_$objectType $handle
 }

 proc delete {handle_r} {
     #
     # A synonym for unset that is more familiar to C++ programmers
     #
     uplevel unset $handle_r
 }
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 To use this file, we simply source it and execute commands such as
 "new" and "delete" to manipulate objects.  For example :
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 // list.i
 %module List
 %{
 #include "list.h"
 %}

 // Very simple C++ example

 class List {
 public:
   List();  // Create a new list
   ~List(); // Destroy a list
   int  search(char *value);
   void insert(char *);  // Insert a new item into the list
   void remove(char *);  // Remove item from list
   char *get(int n);     // Get the nth item in the list
   int  length;          // The current length of the list
 static void print(List *l);  // Print out the contents of the list
 };
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 Now a Tcl script using the interface...
 </p>

 <div class="code"><pre>
 load ./list.so list       ; # Load the module
 source swig_c++.tcl       ; # Source the object file

 new List l
 $l insert Dave
 $l insert John
 $l insert Guido
 $l remove Dave
 puts $l length_get

 delete l
 </pre></div>

 <p>
 The cool thing about this example is that it works with any C++ object
 wrapped by SWIG and requires no special compilation.  Proof that a
 short, but clever Tcl script can be combined with SWIG to do many
 interesting things.
 </p>

 <H2><a name="Tcl_nn46">36.10 Tcl/Tk Stubs</a></H2>


 <p>
 For background information about the Tcl Stubs feature, see
 <a href="http://www.tcl.tk/doc/howto/stubs.html">http://www.tcl.tk/doc/howto/stubs.html</a>.
 </p>

 <p>
 As of SWIG 1.3.10, the generated C/C++ wrapper will use the Tcl Stubs
 feature if compiled with <tt>-DUSE_TCL_STUBS</tt>.
 </p>

 <p>
 As of SWIG 1.3.40, the generated C/C++ wrapper will use the Tk Stubs
 feature if compiled with <tt>-DUSE_TK_STUBS</tt>.  Also, you can override
 the minimum version to support which is passed to <tt>Tcl_InitStubs()</tt>
 and <tt>Tk_InitStubs()</tt> with <tt>-DSWIG_TCL_STUBS_VERSION="8.3"</tt>
 or the version being compiled with using
 <tt>-DSWIG_TCL_STUBS_VERSION=TCL_VERSION</tt>.
 </p>

 </body>
 </html>