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<H1><a name="Scripting">4 Scripting Languages</a></H1>
<!-- INDEX -->
<div class="sectiontoc">
<ul>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn2">The two language view of the world</a>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn3">How does a scripting language talk to C?</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn4">Wrapper functions</a>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn5">Variable linking</a>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn6">Constants</a>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn7">Structures and classes</a>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn8">Proxy classes</a>
</ul>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn9">Building scripting language extensions</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn10">Shared libraries and dynamic loading</a>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn11">Linking with shared libraries</a>
<li><a href="#Scripting_nn12">Static linking</a>
</ul>
</ul>
</div>
<!-- INDEX -->


<p>
This chapter provides a brief overview of scripting language extension
programming and the mechanisms by which scripting language interpreters
access C and C++ code.
</p>

<H2><a name="Scripting_nn2">4.1 The two language view of the world</a></H2>


<p>
When a scripting language is used to control a C program, the
resulting system tends to look as follows:
</p>

<center><img src="ch2.1.png" alt="Scripting language input - C/C++ functions output"></center>

<p>
In this programming model, the scripting language interpreter is used
for high level control whereas the underlying functionality of the
C/C++ program is accessed through special scripting language
"commands."  If you have ever tried to write your own simple command
interpreter, you might view the scripting language approach
to be a highly advanced implementation of that.  Likewise, 
If you have ever used a package such as MATLAB or IDL, it is a
very similar model--the interpreter executes user commands and
scripts.  However, most of the underlying functionality is written in
a low-level language like C or Fortran.
</p>

<p>
The two-language model of computing is extremely powerful because it
exploits the strengths of each language. C/C++ can be used for maximal
performance and complicated systems programming tasks. Scripting
languages can be used for rapid prototyping, interactive debugging,
scripting, and access to high-level data structures such associative
arrays. </p>

<H2><a name="Scripting_nn3">4.2 How does a scripting language talk to C?</a></H2>


<p>
Scripting languages are built around a parser that knows how
to execute commands and scripts.  Within this parser, there is a
mechanism for executing commands and accessing variables.
Normally, this is used to implement the builtin features
of the language.  However, by extending the interpreter, it is usually 
possible to add new commands and variables.   To do this,
most languages define a special API for adding new commands.
Furthermore, a special foreign function interface defines how these
new commands are supposed to hook into the interpreter.
</p>

<p>
Typically, when you add a new command to a scripting interpreter
you need to do two things; first you need to write a special
"wrapper" function that serves as the glue between the interpreter
and the underlying C function.  Then you need to give the interpreter
information about the wrapper by providing details about the name of the
function, arguments, and so forth.  The next few sections illustrate
the process.
</p>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn4">4.2.1 Wrapper functions</a></H3>


<p>
Suppose you have an ordinary C function like this :</p>

<div class="code"><pre>
int fact(int n) {
  if (n &lt;= 1)
    return 1;
  else
    return n*fact(n-1);
}
</pre></div>

<p>
In order to access this function from a scripting language, it is
necessary to write a special "wrapper" function that serves as the
glue between the scripting language and the underlying C function. A
wrapper function must do three things :</p>

<ul>
<li>Gather function arguments and make sure they are valid.
<li>Call the C function.
<li>Convert the return value into a form recognized by the scripting language.
</ul>

<p>
As an example, the Tcl wrapper function for the <tt>fact()</tt>
function above example might look like the following : </p>

<div class="code"><pre>
int wrap_fact(ClientData clientData, Tcl_Interp *interp, int argc, char *argv[]) {
  int result;
  int arg0;
  if (argc != 2) {
    interp-&gt;result = "wrong # args";
    return TCL_ERROR;
  }
  arg0 = atoi(argv[1]);
  result = fact(arg0);
  sprintf(interp-&gt;result, "%d", result);
  return TCL_OK;
}

</pre></div>

<p>
Once you have created a wrapper function, the final step is to tell the
scripting language about the new function. This is usually done in an
initialization function called by the language when the module is
loaded. For example, adding the above function to the Tcl interpreter
requires code like the following :</p>

<div class="code"><pre>
int Wrap_Init(Tcl_Interp *interp) {
  Tcl_CreateCommand(interp, "fact", wrap_fact, (ClientData) NULL,
                    (Tcl_CmdDeleteProc *) NULL);
  return TCL_OK;
}
</pre></div>

<p>
When executed, Tcl will now have a new command called "<tt>fact</tt>"
that you can use like any other Tcl command.</p>

<p>
Although the process of adding a new function to Tcl has been
illustrated, the procedure is almost identical for Perl and
Python. Both require special wrappers to be written and both need
additional initialization code. Only the specific details are
different.</p>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn5">4.2.2 Variable linking</a></H3>


<p>
Variable linking refers to the problem of mapping a 
C/C++ global variable to a variable in the scripting
language interpreter. For example, suppose you had the following
variable:</p>

<div class="code"><pre>
double Foo = 3.5;
</pre></div>

<p>
It might be nice to access it from a script as follows (shown for Perl):</p>

<div class="targetlang"><pre>
$a = $Foo * 2.3;   # Evaluation
$Foo = $a + 2.0;   # Assignment
</pre></div>

<p>
To provide such access, variables are commonly manipulated using a
pair of get/set functions.  For example, whenever the value of a
variable is read, a "get" function is invoked.  Similarly, whenever
the value of a variable is changed, a "set" function is called.
</p>

<p>
In many languages, calls to the get/set functions can be attached to
evaluation and assignment operators.  Therefore, evaluating a variable
such as <tt>$Foo</tt> might implicitly call the get function.  Similarly, 
typing <tt>$Foo = 4</tt> would call the underlying set function to change
the value.
</p>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn6">4.2.3 Constants</a></H3>


<p>
In many cases, a C program or library may define a large collection of
constants.  For example:
</p>

<div class="code"><pre>
#define RED   0xff0000
#define BLUE  0x0000ff
#define GREEN 0x00ff00
</pre></div>
<p>
To make constants available, their values can be stored in scripting
language variables such as <tt>$RED</tt>, <tt>$BLUE</tt>, and
<tt>$GREEN</tt>.  Virtually all scripting languages provide C
functions for creating variables so installing constants is usually
a trivial exercise.
</p>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn7">4.2.4 Structures and classes</a></H3>


<p>
Although scripting languages have no trouble accessing simple
functions and variables, accessing C/C++ structures and classes
present a different problem.  This is because the implementation
of structures is largely related to the problem of 
data representation and layout.  Furthermore, certain language features
are difficult to map to an interpreter.  For instance, what
does C++ inheritance mean in a Perl interface?
</p>

<p>
The most straightforward technique for handling structures is to
implement a collection of accessor functions that hide the underlying
representation of a structure.  For example, 
</p>

<div class="code"><pre>
struct Vector {
  Vector();
  ~Vector();
  double x, y, z;
};

</pre></div>

<p>
can be transformed into the following set of functions :
</p>

<div class="code"><pre>
Vector *new_Vector();
void delete_Vector(Vector *v);
double Vector_x_get(Vector *v);
double Vector_y_get(Vector *v);
double Vector_z_get(Vector *v);
void Vector_x_set(Vector *v, double x);
void Vector_y_set(Vector *v, double y);
void Vector_z_set(Vector *v, double z);

</pre></div>
<p>
Now, from an interpreter these function might be used as follows:
</p>

<div class="targetlang"><pre>
% set v [new_Vector]
% Vector_x_set $v 3.5
% Vector_y_get $v
% delete_Vector $v
% ...
</pre></div>

<p>
Since accessor functions provide a mechanism for accessing the
internals of an object, the interpreter does not need to know anything
about the actual representation of a <tt>Vector</tt>.
</p>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn8">4.2.5 Proxy classes</a></H3>


<p>
In certain cases, it is possible to use the low-level accessor functions
to create a proxy class, also known as a shadow class.
A proxy class is a special kind of object that gets created
in a scripting language to access a C/C++ class (or struct) in a way
that looks like the original structure (that is, it proxies the real
C++ class). For example, if you
have the following C++ definition :</p>

<div class="code"><pre>
class Vector {
public:
  Vector();
  ~Vector();
  double x, y, z;
};
</pre></div>

<p>
A proxy classing mechanism would allow you to access the structure in
a more natural manner from the interpreter. For example, in Python, you might want to do this:
</p>

<div class="targetlang"><pre>
&gt;&gt;&gt; v = Vector()
&gt;&gt;&gt; v.x = 3
&gt;&gt;&gt; v.y = 4
&gt;&gt;&gt; v.z = -13
&gt;&gt;&gt; ...
&gt;&gt;&gt; del v
</pre></div>

<p>
Similarly, in Perl5 you may want the interface to work like this:</p>

<div class="targetlang"><pre>
$v = new Vector;
$v-&gt;{x} = 3;
$v-&gt;{y} = 4;
$v-&gt;{z} = -13;

</pre></div>
<p>
Finally, in Tcl :
</p>

<div class="targetlang"><pre>
Vector v
v configure -x 3 -y 4 -z -13

</pre></div>

<p>
When proxy classes are used, two objects are really at work--one in
the scripting language, and an underlying C/C++ object. Operations
affect both objects equally and for all practical purposes, it appears
as if you are simply manipulating a C/C++ object. 
</p>

<H2><a name="Scripting_nn9">4.3 Building scripting language extensions</a></H2>


<p>
The final step in using a scripting language with your C/C++
application is adding your extensions to the scripting language
itself. There are two primary approaches for doing
this. The preferred technique is to build a dynamically loadable
extension in the form of a shared library.  Alternatively, you can
recompile the scripting language interpreter with your extensions
added to it.
</p>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn10">4.3.1 Shared libraries and dynamic loading</a></H3>


<p>
To create a shared library or DLL, you often need to look at the
manual pages for your compiler and linker.  However, the procedure
for a few common platforms is shown below:</p>

<div class="shell"><pre>
# Build a shared library for Solaris
gcc -fpic -c example.c example_wrap.c -I/usr/local/include
ld -G example.o example_wrap.o -o example.so

# Build a shared library for Linux
gcc -fpic -c example.c example_wrap.c -I/usr/local/include
gcc -shared example.o example_wrap.o -o example.so
</pre></div>

<p>
To use your shared library, you simply use the corresponding command
in the scripting language (load, import, use, etc...). This will
import your module and allow you to start using it. For example:
</p>

<div class="targetlang"><pre>
% load ./example.so
% fact 4
24
%
</pre></div>

<p>
When working with C++ codes, the process of building shared libraries
may be more complicated--primarily due to the fact that C++ modules may need
additional code in order to operate correctly. On many machines, you
can build a shared C++ module by following the above procedures, but
changing the link line to the following :</p>

<div class="shell"><pre>
c++ -shared example.o example_wrap.o -o example.so
</pre></div>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn11">4.3.2 Linking with shared libraries</a></H3>


<p>
When building extensions as shared libraries, it is not uncommon for
your extension to rely upon other shared libraries on your machine. In
order for the extension to work, it needs to be able to find all of
these libraries at run-time. Otherwise, you may get an error such as
the following :</p>

<div class="targetlang"><pre>
&gt;&gt;&gt; import graph
Traceback (innermost last):
  File "&lt;stdin&gt;", line 1, in ?
  File "/home/sci/data1/beazley/graph/graph.py", line 2, in ?
    import graphc
ImportError:  1101:/home/sci/data1/beazley/bin/python: rld: Fatal Error: cannot 
successfully map soname 'libgraph.so' under any of the filenames /usr/lib/libgraph.so:/
lib/libgraph.so:/lib/cmplrs/cc/libgraph.so:/usr/lib/cmplrs/cc/libgraph.so:
&gt;&gt;&gt;
</pre></div>
<p>

What this error means is that the extension module created by SWIG
depends upon a shared library called "<tt>libgraph.so</tt>" that the
system was unable to locate. To fix this problem, there are a few
approaches you can take.</p>

<ul>
<li>Link your extension and explicitly tell the linker where the
required libraries are located. Often times, this can be done with a
special linker flag such as <tt>-R</tt>, <tt>-rpath</tt>, etc. This
is not implemented in a standard manner so read the man pages for your
linker to find out more about how to set the search path for shared
libraries.

<li>Put shared libraries in the same directory as the executable. This
technique is sometimes required for correct operation on non-Unix
platforms.

<li>Set the UNIX environment variable <tt>LD_LIBRARY_PATH</tt> to the
directory where shared libraries are located before running Python.
Although this is an easy solution, it is not recommended.  Consider setting
the path using linker options instead.

</ul>

<H3><a name="Scripting_nn12">4.3.3 Static linking</a></H3>


<p>
With static linking, you rebuild the scripting language interpreter
with extensions. The process usually involves compiling a short main
program that adds your customized commands to the language and starts
the interpreter.  You then link your program with a library to produce
a new scripting language executable.
</p>

<p>
Although static linking is supported on all platforms, this is not
the preferred technique for building scripting language
extensions.  In fact, there are very few practical reasons for doing this--consider
using shared libraries instead.
</p>

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